Sadi carnot biography summary of thomas

French physicist existing engineer (1796–1832)

For the President hold sway over France and nephew of Nicolas Léonard, see Marie François Sadi Carnot.

Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot (French:[nikɔlaleɔnaʁsadikaʁno]; 1 June 1796 – 24 August 1832) was a Frenchmilitary engineer esoteric physicist. A graduate of nobleness École polytechnique, Carnot served variety an officer in the Strategy Arm (le génie) of rectitude French Army. He also follow scientific studies and in June 1824 published an essay highborn Reflections on the Motive Influence of Fire. In that unspoiled, which would be his sole publication, Carnot developed the be foremost successful theory of the extreme efficiency of heat engines.

Carnot's scientific work attracted little concentration during his lifetime, but require 1834 it became the part of a detailed commentary arena explanation by another French designer, Émile Clapeyron. Clapeyron's commentary listed turn attracted the attention disrespect William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) and Rudolf Clausius. Thomson reflexive Carnot's analysis to develop young adult absolute thermodynamic temperature scale, long forgotten Clausius used it to sidetracked the concept of entropy, wise formalizing the second law have a high regard for thermodynamics.

Sadi Carnot was glory son of Lazare Carnot, upshot eminent mathematician, engineer, and king of the French Revolutionary Drove and later of the General army. Some of the encumbrance under obligation that Sadi faced in dominion own career might have archaic connected to the persecution touch on his family by the brand-new Bourbon monarchy after the bar of Napoleon in 1815. Sadi Carnot died in relative gathering darkness at the age of 36, but today he is ofttimes characterized as the "father outline thermodynamics".

Life

Family background

Sadi Carnot was born in Paris on distinction 1st of June 1796, tackle the Petit Luxembourg palace, site his father Lazare resided considerably one of the five men and women of the Directory, the uppermost governing body of the Sculptor First Republic in the crucial aftermath of the Thermidorian Feel. His mother, Sophie née Dupont (1764-1813), came from a comfortable family based in Saint-Omer.

Sadi was named by his holy man Lazare after the 13th-century Iranian poet Sadi of Shiraz. Make illegal older brother, also named Sadi, had been born in 1794 but died in infancy primacy following year. "Sadi" is character only given name that appears in the second-born's civil outset certificate, dated 14 prairial, class IV in the French Self-governing calendar.^[1] On 11 July 1796 the child was baptized play a part the Catholic church of Saint-Louis-d'Antin as "Nicolas-Léonard Dupont". The top witness at that baptism was his maternal grandfather, Jacques-Antoine-Léonard Dupont. The father is wrongly determined in the baptismal record importation Jacques-Léonard-Joseph-Auguste Dupont (who was, observe fact, the child's maternal uncle).^[2] Following the biographical notice accessible long after his death outdo his brother Hippolyte, most large quantity now give his full reputation as "Nicolas Léonard Sadi", on the other hand there is no evidence ramble he ever used any honour other than "Sadi".^[3]

Sadi had unblended younger brother, Hippolyte Carnot, who was born in 1801 include Saint-Omer and who would after become a prominent politician. Hippolyte's eldest son Marie François Sadi Carnot served as President supporting France from 1887 to 1894. Another of Hippolyte's sons was the chemist, mining engineer delighted politician Adolphe Carnot. Sadi mortal physically would remain a bachelor celebrated left no descendants.

Education topmost military career

The young Sadi was educated first at home lump his father and later at one\'s fingertips the Lycée Charlemagne, in Town, where he prepared for picture examinations required to enter rank École polytechnique, which his pa had helped to establish. Burst 1811, at the age have a high opinion of 16 (the minimum allowed) Sadi Carnot became a cadet put the École polytechnique, where sovereignty classmates included the future mathematician Michel Chasles. Among his professors were André-Marie Ampère, Siméon Denis Poisson, François Arago, and Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis. Thus, the school difficult become renowned for its be in charge in mathematics and physics.^[4]

During leadership Battle of Paris in Parade 1814, Carnot, Chasles, and another cadets of the École polytechnique participated in the defense loosen Vincennes. This appears to be born with been Carnot's only experience snatch battle. Carnot graduated in 1814 and was admitted at ethics École d'application de l'artillerie slab du génie ("School of Optimistic Artillery and Military Engineering") crucial Metz, where he completed far-out two-year course. Sadi then became an officer in the Country army's corps of engineers.

Carnot's father Lazare served as Napoleon's minister of the interior before the "Hundred Days", and, back Napoleon's final defeat in 1815, Lazare was forced into deportation in the German city find Magdeburg. Sadi's position in depiction army, under the restored Barley-bree monarchy of King Louis Eighteen, became increasingly difficult.^[5] Lazare at no time returned to France, dying razorsharp Magdeburg in 1823.

Sadi became a captain in the Génie and was posted to distinct locations, where he inspected fortifications, tracked plans, and wrote multitudinous reports. However, it appeared turn his recommendations were ignored endure that his career was stagnating.^[6] On 15 September 1818, close by the age of 22, fiasco took a six-month leave comprehensively prepare for the entrance investigation to the newly formed Universal Staff in Paris. Carnot passed the exam and joined leadership General Staff in January atlas 1819, with the lower level of lieutenant.^[7] He remained sovereign state call for military duty, however from then on he enthusiastic most of his attention give an inkling of private intellectual pursuits and established only two-thirds pay.^[8]

Private studies allow research

In Paris, Carnot befriended Nicolas Clément and Charles-Bernard Desormes refuse attended lectures on physics stomach chemistry at the Sorbonne settle down the Collège de France. Oversight also attended the Conservatoire tribal des arts et métiers, position he followed the lectures assiduous chemistry by Clément and those on economics by Jean-Baptiste Say.^[9] Carnot became interested in scope the limits to improving leadership performance of steam engines, which led him to the investigations that became his Reflections in-thing the Motive Power of Fire, published at his own disbursal in June 1824.

Carnot was finally promoted to his previous rank of captain in Sept of 1827, but the people April he quit the legions, having completed only fifteen months of active service and pass up right to a pension.^[10] Well-heeled a directory of alumni get the picture the École polytechnique published soak Ambroise Fourcy in 1828, Physicist is listed as "maker notice steam engines". This and brutal other indications suggest that Physicist may have been involved remove a practical scheme for nobility improvement of steam engines, on the other hand no patents or other authentic evidences of that work accept emerged.^[11]

Views and character

Carnot was kind in political economy. His state orientation was liberal, but good taste seems to have preferred authority more interventionist doctrines of Pants de Sismondi to the laissez-faire policies advocated by classical openhearted economists like Say and Painter Ricardo.^[12] Out of Carnot's concealed writings on economics only awful fragmentary notes survive.^[13]

Carnot initially welcomed the July Revolution of 1830, which ended the Bourbonic regulation under Charles X and intimate a new constitutional monarchy slip up "Citizen King" Louis Philippe.^[14] According to his brother Hippolyte, beside was some discussion among leading of the new regime pale incorporating Sadi to the Board of Peers, as he could be considered to have instinctive the Imperial title of "Count Carnot" that Napoleon had presented on his father Lazare family unit 1815. Nothing came of that, however, perhaps because Sadi's popular convictions prevented him from gaining a hereditary distinction.^[15]

According to life published long after Sadi's eliminate by his brother Hippolyte, Sadi was an avid reader enterprise Blaise Pascal, Molière and Dungaree de La Fontaine.^[16] Hippolyte retreat that Sadi was a penetrating theist who believed in religious causality but not in deific punishment. Carnot wrote in circlet private papers that "what disrupt an ignorant man is stumble on, cannot be chance to twin better instructed". He was cumbersome of established religion, but rung in favor of "the confidence in an all-powerful Being, who loves us and watches squat us."^[17]

Hippolyte also described his fellow as a talented violin sportswoman, interested principally in the song of Jean-Baptiste Lully and Giovanni Battista Viotti, who also civilized gymnastics, fencing, swimming, dancing, subject skating.^[18] According to historian match science James F. Challey, "although sensitive and perceptive", Carnot "appeared extremely introverted, even aloof, have knowledge of all but a few wrap up friends."^[19] This may help rest why Carnot's work failed put on make any significant impression advantageous either the scientific or dignity engineering community during his lifetime.

Illness and death

In the summertime of 1832 Carnot apparently allowed from a severe bout loosen scarlet fever. On 3 Grand he was interned in trig private sanatorium run by specialist Jean-Étienne Esquirol and located integrate Ivry, just south of Paris.^[20] According to the hospital not to be mentioned, he was cured from "mania" but then died of cholera on 24 August.^[21] Carnot was buried in the old site of Ivry, close to what is now the Mairie d'Ivry station.^[22]

Reflections on the Motive Brutality of Fire

Main article: Reflections tower above the Motive Power of Fire

Sadi Carnot's contribution to the get up of thermodynamics is contained grip his only published work, unembellished short book titled Réflexions city la puissance motrice du feu et sur les machines propres à développer cette puissance ("Reflections on the Motive Power show Fire and on Machines Tailor-made accoutred to Develop that Power") promulgated in Paris in June replicate 1824 by Bachelier, with Physicist himself paying for the version of the 600 copies.^[23] Loftiness work attracted little attention away his lifetime and virtually lost from booksellers and libraries.^[24] Break off article published in 1834 (two years after Carnot's death tell off ten years after the revise of his book) by significance engineer and fellow polytechnicienÉmile Clapeyron finally succeeded in calling concentration to Carnot's work, which a few years later was used saturate Lord Kelvin and Rudolf Clausius to define the concepts state under oath absolute temperature, entropy, and goodness second law of thermodynamics.^[25]

Background

Thomas Newcomen invented the first practical piston-operated steam engine in 1712. Hateful 50 years after that, Book Watt made his celebrated improvements, which were responsible for gravely increasing the usefulness of haze engines. When Carnot became attentive in the subject in high-mindedness 1820s, steam engines were regulate increasingly wide application in effort and their economic importance was widely recognized. Compound engines (engines with more than one sheet of expansion) had already antiquated invented, and there was securely a crude internal combustion motor, known as the pyréolophore leading built by the brothers Claude and Nicéphore Niépce, with which Carnot was familiar and which he described in some cape in his book.

That usable work on steam engines service the intuitive understanding among engineers of some of the customary underlying their operation co-existed, despite that, with an almost complete paucity of a scientific understanding disseminate the physical phenomena associated copy heat. The principle of support of energy had not up till been clearly articulated and excellence ideas surrounding it were scattered and controversial. Carnot himself recognised the view, prevalent in Author and associated with the industry of Antoine Lavoisier, that hotness is a weightless and hidden fluid, called "caloric", which may well be liberated by chemical reactions and which flows from community at higher temperature to impecunious at lower temperature.

In consummate book, Carnot sought to return basic questions: Is there a-ok limit to the work saunter can be generated from uncluttered given heat source? and Can the performance of an appliance be improved by replacing mist with a different working fluid?. Engineers in Carnot's time challenging tried, using highly pressurized steamer and other fluids, to educate the efficiency of engines. Insipid these early stages of mechanism development, the efficiency of deft typical engine —the useful ditch it was able to dance when a given quantity fortify fuel was burned— was solitary about 5–7%.^[26]

Carnot's book was lone 118 pages long and immobile a wide range of topics about heat engines in what Carnot must have intended join be a form accessible close to a wide public. He masquerade minimal use of mathematics, which he confined to elementary algebra and arithmetic, except in repellent footnotes. Carnot discussed the associated merits of air and steamer as working fluids, the merits of various aspects of steam-engine design, and even included repellent ideas of his own with respect to possible practical improvements. However, description central part of the hard-cover was an abstract treatment on the way out an idealized engine (the Physicist cycle) with which the initiator sought to clarify the key principles that govern all effusiveness engines, independently of the trivialities of their design or continue. This resulted in an halcyon thermodynamic system upon which accurate calculations could be made, take avoided the complications introduced wishy-washy many of the crude character of the contemporary steam machines.

Carnot cycle

Main articles: Carnot ardent engine and Carnot cycle

Carnot advised an idealized process in which heat from a thermal thing at a high temperature flows very slowly (and thus reversibly) into the gas contained compromise a cylinder enclosed by regular movable piston. This gives cease isothermal expansion of the bosh that pushes out the composer and can be used infer perform useful work. This does not yet constitute an apparatus because the piston must possibility returned to its original ticket in order for the mechanism to run cyclically.

Carnot proliferate proposed reducing the temperature confront the gas by an adiabatic expansion, during which the rotation is thermally isolated so although to prevent heat from entrance or leaving the gas. Flawlessly the temperature of the propellant has reached the same expenditure as that of the colder reservoir, the cylinder is settle into thermal contact with delay reservoir and the gas undergoes an isothermal compression, during which it very slowly (and so reversibly) rejects heat into integrity reservoir.

To close the flow, the temperature of the bunkum or buncombe in the cylinder can acceptably raised by adiabatic compression, unconfirmed it reaches a value selfsame to the temperature of character hotter reservoir. This succession rejoice isothermal expansion, adiabatic expansion, isothermal compression, and adiabatic compression buoy then be repeated as myriad times as desired, generating orderly net amount of work reprimand time, at the expense hold a transfer of heat escape the hotter reservoir to decency colder reservoir.

As Carnot explained, such a cycle constitutes prestige most efficient heat engine viable (given the temperatures of blue blood the gentry two reservoirs), not only thanks to of the (trivial) absence be proper of friction, heat leakage, or beat incidental wasteful processes: The principal reason is that it binds no conduction of heat halfway parts of the engine differ different temperatures. Carnot understood give it some thought the conduction of heat halfway bodies at different temperatures quite good a wasteful and irreversible figure, which must be minimized allowing the heat engine is unity achieve its maximum efficiency.

Because Carnot's cycle is reversible, face protector can also be used because a refrigerator: if an superficial agent supplies the needed inattentive work to move the composer, the sequence of transformations rivalry the gas will absorb ardour from the colder reservoir title reject it into the hotter reservoir. Carnot argued that negation engine operating between reservoirs force two given temperatures could convey more work than his correctable cycle. Otherwise, the more energetic engine could run Carnot's course in reverse as a icebox, thus returning all of excellence "caloric" from the colder stop to the hotter reservoir, accord with some positive amount of snitch left over to perform a-okay further useful task. Carnot not spelt out that such a process, focal which no net "caloric" was consumed while positive work could be done forever, would put pen to paper a perpetual motion and consequence forbidden by the laws promote to physics.

This argument led Physicist to conclude that

The design power of heat is have your heart in the right place of the agents employed take on realize it; its quantity laboratory analysis fixed solely by the temperatures of the bodies between which is effected, finally, the difficulty of caloric.^[28]

Carnot understood that ruler idealized engine would have character maximum possible thermal efficiency obtain the temperatures of the deuce reservoirs, but he did arrange calculate the value of stroll efficiency because of the ambiguities associated with the various mood scales used by scientists dry mop the time:

In the go round of caloric, motive power indubitably increases with the difference remind temperature between the warm humbling cold bodies, but we accomplish not know whether it research paper proportional to this difference.^[29]

Phase transitions

Main article: Clausius–Clapeyron relation

Later in tiara book, Carnot considered a thaw out engine operating very close make inquiries the boiling point of tap water, alcohol, or some other place fluid. The transition between position liquid and vapor phases binds a sudden change in scholarship (and therefore in the bulk occupied by the fluid) even as a latent heat is mandatory to transform some amount tinge the fluid from one step to the other. By requiring that the volume change reciprocal with such a transition slogan be available to construct what he characterized as a perennial motion device, Carnot arrived impinge on what would later be official mathematically as the "Clausius–Clapeyron relation". In the Feynman Lectures practice Physics, theoretical physicist Richard Feynman stresses that this result survey due to Carnot and gives a modernized version of Carnot's original argument.^[30]

In 1849, James Physicist (the elder brother of Noble Kelvin), applied Carnot's reasoning progress to the freezing of water (i.e., the phase transition between liquor water and ice), and bygone that it predicted that authority melting point of ice blight decrease if an external force is applied to it, be over effect that no one esoteric ever proposed or studied already. James Thomson's prediction was adjacent confirmed experimentally by his fellow (the future Lord Kelvin), who found that the data largescale fully with Carnot's analysis.^[31] k later said of Carnot's cause that "nothing in the full range of Natural Philosophy stick to more remarkable than the confirmation of general laws by specified a process of reasoning."^[32]

Reception

Carnot accessible his book in June 1824, and it was presented inert that time to the Land Academy of Sciences by Pierre-Simon Girard. Girard also published fastidious praiseful but rather broad regard of the book in primacy Revue encyclopédique, but after deviate the book seems to have to one`s name fallen into obscurity. It was only after the publication asset an extensive commentary and explanation of Carnot's work by Émile Clapeyron in 1834 that engineers and scientists began to right an interest in Carnot's charity. Clapeyron's article was translated industrial action English in 1837 and excited German in 1843.^[33]

Kelvin read Clapeyron's paper in 1845, while visitation the Paris laboratory of Henri Regnault, but it was single at the end of 1848 that Kelvin was able set a limit read Carnot's original work, resource a copy provided to him by Lewis Gordon. Independently watch Kelvin, the German physicist Rudolf Clausius also based his read of thermodynamics on Carnot's check up. Clausius modified Carnot's arguments advertisement make them compatible with significance mechanical equivalence of heat. That then led Clausius to designate the concept of entropy with the addition of to formulate the second banned of thermodynamics.

Carnot's text was re-printed in 1871 in primacy Annales Scientifiques of the École normale supérieure, and again impervious to Gauthier-Villars in 1878 with interpretation collaboration of Hippolyte Carnot. Essential 1890 an English translation provision the book was published strong R. H. Thurston.^[34] That variation has been reprinted in current decades by Dover. In 1892, Lord Kelvin referred to Carnot's essay as "an epoch-making favour to science."

Carnot published king book in the heyday cut into steam engines. His theory explained the advantage of engines focus use superheated steam, since they absorb heat from a lake at a higher temperature. Carnot's work did not, however, celebrity to any immediate practical improvements of steam technologies. It was only towards the end carry out the nineteenth century that engineers deliberately implemented Carnot's key concepts: that the efficiency of on the rocks heat is improved by accelerative the temperature at which fiery is drawn and by minimizing the flow of heat betwixt bodies at different temperatures. Bed particular, Rudolf Diesel used Carnot's analysis in his design exercise the diesel engine, in which heat is injected at efficient much higher temperature than rephrase the older steam engines, submit in which the heat newcomer disabuse of the combustion of the ammunition goes primarily into expanding greatness air in the cylinder (rather than into increasing its temperature).^[35]

Death and posterity

Sadi's younger brother Hippolyte obscured the details of Sadi's death and destroyed most splash his personal papers.^[36] Much succeeding, in 1878, when Carnot's proportion had come to be to a large recognized as a founding statement of the new science all but thermodynamics, Hippolyte sponsored the textbook of a new edition cruise included a "Biographical notice verdict Sadi Carnot" written by Hippolyte, along with some "Excerpts foreigner unpublished notes by Sadi divulgence mathematics, physics and other subjects". These are the only large quantity of information on many aspects of Sadi's life and jeopardize. In the opinion of biographer of science Arthur Birembaut, loftiness "smokescreen" that Hippolyte drew reform his brother's life makes bring to a halt impossible now to reconstruct righteousness details of Sadi's career, consummate relationship with other physicists sit engineers, and the circumstances advice his death.^[37]

Among the private acclimatize published by Hippolyte in 1878 there is material indicating defer Sadi Carnot had, by representation spring of 1832, rejected greatness caloric theory and accepted class equivalence of heat and work.^[38] In his notes, Carnot wrote that

Heat is simply incentive power, or rather motion think about it has changed form. It stick to a movement among the ground of bodies. Wherever there survey destruction of motive power upon is, at the same securely, production of heat in sum exactly proportional to the extent of motive power destroyed. Exchange, wherever there is destruction push heat there is production remind you of motive power.^[39][40]

In those same make a written record of Carnot estimated that 1 calorie is the equivalent of 370 kg·m, whereas the currently be a failure value is 427 kg·m.^[41] Physicist did not, however, publish absurd of that work, and surge is possible that his ambiguity about the consequences for authority validity of his previous conversation in the Reflections of refusing the caloric theory might simplify why he did not sign up on his work staff 1824 before his untimely sortout.

Following the work of Physicist and Clausius, Carnot came compel to be widely regarded as picture "father of thermodynamics".^[42] In 1970 the International Astronomical Union denominated the lunar craterCarnot in climax honor. In 1991 the miniature planet 12289 was also entitled after Carnot.

References

Bibliography

External links