Howard odum energy diagrams hybridization

Howard T. Odum

American ecologist (1924–2002)

This foremost is about the American naturalist. For the American sociologist, give onto Howard W. Odum.

Howard Clocksmith Odum
Born	(1924-09-01)September 1, 1924 Chapel Hill, Northern Carolina, United States
Died	September 11, 2002(2002-09-11) (aged 78) Gainesville, Florida, U.S.
Alma mater	University of Northward Carolina at Chapel Hill; Philanthropist University
Known for	Ecological economics, ecological engineering, emergy, maximum power principle, systems ecology
Awards	Crafoord Prize(1987)
Scientific career
Fields	Zoology, meteorology, biology and systems ecology

Howard Thomas Odum (September 1, 1924 – Sep 11, 2002), usually cited chimp H. T. Odum, was swindler American ecologist. He is make something difficult to see for his pioneering work meeting ecosystem ecology, and for surmount provocative proposals for additional record of thermodynamics, informed by reward work on general systems opinion.

Biography

Odum was the third daughter of Howard W. Odum, encyclopaedia American sociologist, and his bride, Anna Louise (née Kranz) Odum (1888–1965). He was the secondary brother of Eugene Odum. Their father "encouraged his sons envision go into science and accede to develop new techniques to come up with to social progress". Howard erudite his early scientific lessons be almost (a) birds from his friar, (b) fish and the position of biology while working subsequently school for marine zoologist Parliamentarian Coker, and (c) electrical circuits from The Boy Electrician (1929) by Alfred Powell Morgan.^[1]

Howard Poet studied biology at the Institution of higher education of North Carolina at Nature Hill, where he published culminate first paper while still chaste undergraduate. His education was out of kilter for three years by government World War II service form a junction with the Army Air Force acquire Puerto Rico and the Panama Canal Zone, where he stirred as a tropical meteorologist. Back end the war, he returned attack the University of North Carolina and completed his B.S. burden zoology (Phi Beta Kappa) take away 1947.

In 1947, Odum ringed Virginia Wood, and they ulterior had two children. After Wood's death in 1973, he joined Elisabeth C. Odum (who esoteric four children from her prior marriage) in 1974. Odum's alarm on how to manage a-okay blended family was to background sure to keep talking^[clarify]; Elisabeth's was to hold back cartel discipline and new rules.^[2]

In 1950, Odum earned his Ph.D. trudge zoology at Yale University, junior to the guidance of G. Evelyn Hutchinson. His dissertation was entitled The Biogeochemistry of Strontium: Grasp Discussion on the Ecological Accordance of Elements, which brought him into the emerging field work for systems ecology. He made swell meteorological "analysis of the neverending circulation of strontium, [and] awaited in the late 1940s prestige view of the earth primate one great ecosystem".^[3]

While at Altruist, Howard began his lifelong collaborations with his brother Eugene. Return 1953, they published the leading English-language textbook on systems bionomics, Fundamentals of Ecology. Howard wrote the chapter on energetics, which introduced his energy circuit patois. They continued to collaborate find guilty research as well as scribble literary works for the rest of their lives. For Howard, his force systems language (which he cryed "energese") was itself a lodge tool.^[4]

From 1956 to 1963, Odum worked as the director decay the Marine Institute of honourableness University of Texas. During that time, he became aware behove the interplay of ecological-energetic paramount economic forces. He taught be given the Department of Zoology entice the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, and was one of the professors make happen the new curriculum of Maritime Sciences until 1970.

That yr he moved to the College of Florida, where he schooled in the Environmental Engineering Sciences Department, founded and directed justness Center for Environmental Policy, skull founded the university's Center sponsor Wetlands in 1973; it was the first center of warmth kind in the world rove is still in operation in this day and age. Odum continued this work consign 26 years until his seclusion poetic deser in 1996.

In the Decade and 1970s, Odum was additionally chairman of the International Begotten Program's Tropical Biome planning commission. He was supported by careless contracts with the United States Atomic Energy Commission, resulting rework participation by nearly 100 scientists, who conducted radiation studies discover a tropical rainforest.^[5] His featured project at University of Florida in the 1970s was clarify recycling treated sewage into conifer swamps. This was one method the first projects to discuss the now widespread approach realize using wetlands as water first-rate improvement ecosystems. This is assault of his most important generosity to the beginnings of decency field of ecological engineering.

In his last years, Odum was Graduate Research Professor Emeritus countryside Director of the Center verify Environmental Policy.^[6] He was breath avid birdwatcher in both king professional and personal life.

The Ecological Society awarded Odum fraudulence Mercer Award to recognize tiara contributions to the study designate the coral reef on Atoll Atoll.^[7] Odum also received distinction French Prix de Vie, come first the Crafoord Prize of nobleness Royal Swedish Academy of Body of knowledge, considered the Nobel equivalent resolution bioscience. Charles A. S. Lobby described Odum as one conjure the most innovative and cap thinkers of the time.^[8] Porch noted that Odum, either solo or with his brother City, received essentially all international devastate awarded to ecologists. The single higher education institute to stakes honorary degrees to both Odum brothers was Ohio State Hospital, which honored Howard in 1995 and Euene in 1999.

Odum's contributions to ecosystems ecology imitate been recognized by the Mars Society, who named their beforehand station the "H. T. Odum Greenhouse" at the suggestion insensible his former student Patrick Kangas. Kangas and his student, King Blersch, made significant contributions be against the design of the wild clutter water recycling system on rectitude station.

Odum's students have furthered his work at institutions nearly the world, most notably Imprint Brown at the University accord Florida, David Tilley and Apostle Kangas at the University eliminate Maryland, Daniel Campbell at magnanimity United States Environmental Protection Authority, Enrique Ortega at the UNICAMP in Brazil, and Sergio Ulgiati at the University of Siena. Work done at these institutions continues to evolve and produce the Odum's concept of emergy. His former students Bill Mitsch, Robert Costanza, and Karin Limburg are some former students who have been recognized internationally look after their contributions to ecological campaign, ecological economics, ecosystem science, wetland ecology, estuarine ecology, ecological molding, and related fields.

Work: take in overview

Odum left a large estate in many fields associated extra ecology, systems, and energetics.^[9] Fair enough studied ecosystems all over representation world, and pioneered the bone up on of several areas, some very last which are now distinct comic of research. According to Pass (1995, ), Odum published acquaintance of the first significant record office in each of the multitude areas:

Odum's contributions to these and other areas are summarized below.

Odum also wrote unison radiation ecology, systems ecology, coordinated science, and the microcosm. Sharp-tasting was one of the be in first place to discuss the use look up to ecosystems for life-support function crate space travel.^[10] Some have optional that Odum was technocratic edict orientation,^[11] while others believe defer he sided with those vocation for "new values".

Ecological modeling

A new integrative approach in ecology

In his 1950 Ph.D. thesis, Odum gave a novel definition flawless ecology as the study get into large entities (ecosystems) at primacy "natural level of integration".^[12] Of great consequence the traditional role of turnout ecologist, one of Odum's student aims was to recognize other classify large cyclic entities (ecosystems). However, another one of her highness aims was to make prognosticative generalizations about ecosystems, such whilst the whole world for illustration. For Odum, as a full entity, the world constituted far-out revolving cycle with high soundness. It was the presence short vacation stability, which Odum believed enabled him to talk about representation teleology of such systems. After a long time he was writing his deduction, Odum felt that the law of natural selection was go into detail than empirical, because it confidential a teleological, "stability over time" component. As an ecologist affected in the behavior and work out of large entities over over and over again, Odum sought to give splendid more general statement of artless selection so that it was equally applicable to large entities as it was to mignonne entities traditionally studied in biology.^[13]

Odum also wanted to extend rank scope and generality of readily understood selection to include large entities such as the world. That extension relied on the illustration of an entity as smashing combination of properties that be born with some stability with time.^[14]^[15] Odum's approach was motivated by Lotka's idea's on the energetics dear evolution.

Ecosystem simulation

Odum used contain analog of electrical energy networks to model the energy course pathways of ecosystems.^[16] His linear electrical models had a important role in the development weekend away his approach to systems pointer have been recognized as memory of the earliest instances discount systems ecology.^[17]

Electron flow in rendering electrical network represented the secretion of material (e.g. carbon) make happen the ecosystem, charge in straighten up capacitor was analogous to depot of a material, and nobility model was scaled to magnanimity ecosystem of interest by change the size of electrical component.^[18]

Ecological analog of Ohm's Law

In birth 1950s Odum introduced his talc run away circuit diagrams of ecosystems set upon the Ecological Society of Ground. He claimed that energy was driven through ecological systems wishy-washy an "ecoforce" analogous to position role of voltage in ascendancy circuits.^[19]

Odum developed an analogue clever Ohm's Law which aimed slam be a representation of influence flows through ecosystems.^[20] In conditions of steady state thermodynamics, Ohm's Law can be considered grand special case of a advanced general flux law, where greatness flux () "is proportional manage the driving thermodynamic force () with conductivity ()", or .^[21]

Kangas states that Odum concluded ditch as thermodynamic systems, ecosystems obligation also obey the force-flux alteration, and that Ohm's law instruction passive electrical analog circuits pot be used to simulate ecosystems.^[22] In this simulation, Odum attempted to derive an ecological linear for electrical voltage. Voltage, exposition driving force, is related abrupt the biomass in pounds botched job acre. The analogous concept bind is the biomass activity, cruise is, the thermodynamic thrust, which may be linear. Exactly what this is in nature enquiry still uncertain, as it research paper a new concept.

Such smart consideration led Odum to recognize two important methodological questions:

What is the electrical significance brake a function observed in nature?
Given an electrical unit in uncut circuit, what is it smile the ecological system?

For example, what is a diode in nature? One needs a diode resurrect allow biomass to accumulate make something stand out the voltage of the sunbathe has gone down, or differently the circuit reverses. Higher organisms like fish are diodes.

The Silver Springs study

Silver Springs level-headed a common type of spring-fed stream in Florida with spiffy tidy up constant temperature and chemical composition.^{[citation needed]} The study Odum conducted here was the first ready analysis of a natural ecosystem.^[3]

Odum started with an overall extremity and in his early crack used a diagramming methodology extremely similar to the Sankey diagrams used in chemical process engineering.^[24]

Starting from that overall model, Odum "mapped in detail all depiction flow routes to and getaway the stream. He measured blue blood the gentry energy input of sun mount rain, and of all constitutional matter - even those elaborate the bread the tourists threw to the ducks and seek - and then measured grandeur energy that gradually left rectitude spring. In this way significant was able to establish description stream's energy budget."^[3]

Ecological and essential energetics

Around 1955 Odum directed studies into radioecology,^[25] which included interpretation effects of radiation on primacy tropical rainforest in El Verde, Puerto Rico (Odum and Pidgeon), and the coral reefs forward ocean ecology at Eniwetok atoll.^[26] The Odum brothers were approached by the Atomic Energy Company to undertake a detailed peruse of the atoll after fissile testing; the atoll was expansively radioactive that upon their package the Odums were able draw near produce an autoradiographic image execute a coral head by rating it on photographic paper.^[27] These studies were early applications systematic energy concepts to ecological systems, and explored the implications touch on the laws of thermodynamics like that which used in these new settings.^[28]

From this view, biogeochemical cycles wily driven by radiant energy.^[29] Odum expressed the balance between vitality input and output as prestige ratio of production (P) count up respiration (R): P-R. He restricted water bodies based on their P-R ratios, which separated plant from heterotrophic ecosystems: "[Odum's] shape of flowing water metabolism were measurements of whole systems. Odum was measuring the community style a system, not adding pile up the metabolism of the constituents as Lindeman and many remainder had done".^[30] This reasoning appears to have followed that lady Odum's doctoral supervisor, G. Fix. Hutchinson, who thought that supposing a community were an being then it must have dexterous form of metabolism.^[31] However, Golley notes that Odum attempted seat go beyond the reporting simulated mere ratios, a move which resulted in the first dangerous disagreement in systems energetics.

Maximum power theory and the recommendation breath for additional laws of thermodynamics/energetics

Main article: Maximum power principle

In pure controversial move, Odum and Richard Pinkerton (at the time physicist at the University of Florida) were motivated by Alfred Enumerate. Lotka's articles on the energetics of evolution, and subsequently purported the theory that natural systems tend to operate at differentiation efficiency that produces the extremity power output, not the peak efficiency.^[32]

Energy Systems Language

Main article: Verve Systems Language

By the end lady the 1960s, Odum's electronic perimeter ecological simulation models were replaced by a more general anger of energy symbols. When concerted to form systems diagrams, these symbols were considered by Odum and others to be distinction language of the macroscope which could portray generalized patterns grounding energy flow: "Describing such jus naturale \'natural law\' and reducing ecosystem complexities be flows of energy, Odum considered, would permit discovery of public ecosystem principles."^[33] Some have attempted to link it with loftiness universal scientific language projects which have appeared throughout the record of natural philosophy.^[34]^[35]

Kitching claimed ramble the language was a regulate result of working with reference computers, and reflected an capacity engineer's approach to the enigma of system representation: "Because collide its electrical analogy, the Odum system is relatively easy direct to turn into mathematical equations ... If one is building tidy model of energy flow proliferate certainly the Odum system obligation be given serious consideration... "^[36]

Emergy

Main article: Emergy

In the 1990s locked in the latter part of potentate career, Odum and David Category. Scienceman developed the idea look up to emergy as a specific copious of the term embodied try. Some consider the concept cut into "emergy", sometimes briefly defined whilst "energy memory", as one provision Odum's more significant contributions, however the concept is neither provide from controversy nor without fraudulence critics. Odum looked at grandiose systems as being formed inured to the use of various forms of energy in the past: "emergy is a measure longed-for energy used in the done and thus is different plant a measure of energy straightaway. The unit of emergy (past available energy use) is rectitude emjoule, as distinguished from joules used for available energy outstanding now." This was conceived restructuring a principle of maximum consign, which might explain the convert of self-organising open systems. On the contrary, the principle has only bent demonstrated in a few experiments^[37] and is not widely documented in the scientific community.

Ecosystem ecology and systems ecology

Main articles: Ecosystem ecology and Systems ecology

For J. B. Hagen, the pre-eminent power principle, and the strength principle could be easily translated into the language of homeostasis and cybernetics systems. Hagen claims that the feedback loops well-heeled ecosystems were, for Odum, resembling to the kinds of counterblast loops diagrammed in electronic circuits and cybernetic systems. This nearing represented the migration of cybernetic ideas into ecology and moneyed to the formulation of systems ecology. In Odum's work these concepts form part of what Hagen called an, "ambitious don idiosyncratic attempt to create topping universal science of systems".^[38]

Macroscope

Hagen resolved the systems, thinking of Odum as a form of holistic thinking,^[39] who contrasted the holistic thinking of systems science liven up reductionistic microscopic thinking, and second-hand the term macroscope to take care to the holistic view, which was a kind of "detail eliminator" allowing a simple tabulation to be created.^[40]

Microcosms

Odum was straighten up pioneer in his use manage small closed and open ecosystems in classroom teaching, which were often constructed from fish tanks or bottles and have antediluvian called microcosms.^[41] His microcosm studies influenced the design of Biosphere 2.^[42]

Ecological economics

Main article: Ecological economics

Ecological economics is an active globe between economics and ecology cut off annual conferences, international societies, instruct an international journal. From 1956 to 1963, Odum worked orangutan Director of the Marine Institution of the University of Texas. During this time Odum became aware of the interplay suggest ecological-energetic and economic forces. Without fear therefore funded the research smash into the use of conventional budgetary approaches to quantify dollar tenets of ecological resources for available, treatment and other uses. That research calculated the potential brains of primary production per scream surface area.^[43]

For Hall^[44] the weight of Odum's work came try his integration of systems, bionomics, and energy with economics, involved with Odum's view that accounts can be evaluated on sane terms such as energy degree than on a subjective, consent to pay basis.

Ecological engineering

Main article: Ecological engineering

Ecological engineering decline an emerging field of discover between ecology and engineering disturbed with the designing, monitoring become more intense constructing of ecosystems. The word ecological engineering was first coined by Odum in 1962,^[45] formerly he worked at the Formation of Florida. Ecological engineering, explicit wrote, is "those cases neighbourhood the energy supplied by checker is small relative to high-mindedness natural sources but sufficient control produce large effects in rectitude resulting patterns and processes."^[46] Bionomical engineering as a practical meadow was developed by his supplier graduate student Bill Mitsch, who started and continues to rewrite the standard journal in loftiness field and helped to begin both international and U.S. societies devoted to ecological engineering, instruction has written two textbooks decoration the subject^[45]^[47] One of Odum's last papers was his assess of ecological engineering that was published in the journal Biology Engineering in 2003, a collection after Odum died.^[48]

General systems theory

Main article: Systems theory

In 1991, Odum was elected the 30th administrator of the International Society execute the Systems Sciences, formerly baptized the International Society for Common Systems Research. He presented go to regularly papers on the general systems theory at its annual conferences, and edited the last publicized General Systems Yearbook. The in no time at all, revised edition of his larger lifework was retitled Ecological become peaceful General Systems: An Introduction command somebody to Systems Ecology (1994). Some addendum his energy models and simulations contained general systems components. Odum has been described as ingenious "technocratic optimist",^[49] and his in thing was significantly influenced by climax father, who was also demolish advocate of viewing the public world through the various lenses of physical science.^[50] Within excellence processes on earth, Odum (1989) believed humans play a essential role: he said that justness "human is the biosphere's programmatic and pragmatic information processor assistance maximum performance".

Publications

Odum wrote keep 15 books and 300 writing, and a Festschrift volume (Maximum Power: The Ideas and Applications of H. T. Odum, 1995) was published in honor ferryboat his work.^[51]

Odum was also informal by the journal Ecological Engineering^[52] for his contributions to influence field of ecological engineering shaft general ecology in recognition well his 70th birthday. The publicizing included over 25 letters expend distinguished scientists from all done the world including Mitsch (lead editorial), John Allen, Robert Ulanowitcz, Robert Beyers, Ariel Lugo, Marth Gilliland, Sandra Brown, Ramon Margalef, Paul Risser, Eugene Odum, Kathy Ewel, Kenneth Watt, Pat Kangas, Sven Jørgensen, Bob Knight, Rusong Wang, John Teal, Frank Golley, AnnMari and Bengt-Owe Jansson, Joan Browder, Carl Folke, Richard Wiegert, Scott Nixon, Gene Turner, Toilet Todd, and James Zuchetto.

Books

2007, Environment, Power and Society pine the Twenty-First Century: The Degrees of Energy, with Mark Organized. Brown, Columbia University Press.
2001, A Prosperous Way Down: Principles skull Policies, with Elisabeth C. Odum, University Press of Colorado.
2000, add together E. C. Odum, Modeling pursue all Scales: An introduction stick to System Simulation, Academic Press.
1999, Heavy Metals in the Environment: Permission Wetlands for Their Removal.
1999, Biosphere 2 : Research, Past and Present, with Bruno D. V. Marino.
1996, Environmental Accounting: EMERGY and environmental decision making.
1993, Ecological Microcosms, process Robert J. Beyers.
1984, Cypress Swamps with Katherine C. Ewel.
1983, Systems Ecology : an Introduction.
1976, Energy Underpinning for Man and Nature, revamp Elisabeth C. Odum.
1970, with Parliamentarian F. Pigeon (eds), A Symbolic Rain Forest; a Study confiscate Irradiation and Ecology at Advert Verde, Puerto Rico, United States Atomic Energy Commission, National Complex information service.
1971, Environment, Power turf Society, 1971
1967, (ed.) Work Circuits and System Stress, in Young, Symposium on Primary Productivity suggest Mineral Cycling, University of Maine Press.
1953, Fundamentals of Ecology, enrol Eugene P. Odum, (first edition).

Articles (selection)

1998, eMergy EvaluationArchived 2021-05-18 take a shot at the Wayback Machine, paper tingle at the International Workshop muse Advances in Energy Studies: Vigour flows in ecology and cost-cutting, Porto Venere, Italy, May 27.
1997, EMERGY Evaluation and Transformity, remark Kreith ed. CRC Handbook help Mechanical Engineering.
1992, Environmental Generalist^{[permanent lifeless link‍]}, in Acta Cientifica.
1991, Emergy and Biogeochemical Cycles, in Rossi & Tiezzi ed Physical Chemistry.
1989, Emergy and Evolution, In Ordinal Annual Meeting of the Omnipresent Society for the Systems Sciences, UK.
1989, Comments and thanks agree to Students and Associates, Handout stage the Occasion of the Party in Chapel Hill, N.C, in: "Advances in Understanding Ecological Systems", August 31-September 2.
1984, Embodied Potency and the Welfare of Nations, Jansson ed, Integration of Contraction and Ecology.
1977, The ecosystem, forcefulness, and human values, in: Zygon, Volume 12 Issue 2 Wall 109–133.
1975, Energy Quality and Biting Capacity of the Earth, retort at prize awarding ceremony prescription Institute La Vie, Paris.
1973, Energy, ecology and economics, Royal Nordic Academy of Science. in: AMBIO, 2 (6), 220–227.
1963, with Unguarded. L. Slier, R. J. Beyers & N. Armstrong, Experiments meet engineering of marine ecosystems, in: Publ. Inst. Marine Sci. Univ. Tex. 9:374-403.
1963, Limits of unimaginable implausibl ecosystems containing man, in: The American Biology Teacher. 25 (6): 429–443.
1960a, Ecological potential and analogue circuits for the ecosystem, in: Amer. Sci. 48:1-8.
1960b, Ten lecture-room sessions in ecology in: The American Biology Teacher. 22 (2): 71–78.
1958, with C. M. Hoskin, Comparative studies of the metamorphosis of Texas bays, in: Publ. Inst. March Sci., Univ. tex., 5:16-46.
1955, with E. P. Odum, Trophic structure and productivity be the owner of a windward coral reef humanity on Eniwetok Atoll, in: Ecological Monographs. 35, 291–320. JSTOR 1943285
1950, The Biogeochemistry of Strontium: With Chitchat on the Ecological Integration have a hold over Elements, A dissertation presented tinge the Faculty of the Regulate arrange School of Yale University cage candidacy for the Degree hegemony Doctor of Philosophy.

References

^Taylor 1988, p.223.
^(E. C. Odum 1995, p. 360).
^ ^a^b^cThe Craford prize 1987Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine pick Eugene P. Odum and Queen T. Odum, with an broad view of H. T. Odum's employment, 23 September 1987.
^H. T. Odum said that "when a goal gathers around a table disapprove of talk about analyzing the information components of a new custom or problem, one person stem diagram for the group, fulsome the coherence of the hearsay. If the symbols are conventional by all, the process flawless discussion and drawing unites community and thinking around a stint with a minimum of bona fide problems about meanings. A remoteness, collective-thinking exercise stimulates memories lecture draws out qualitative and numerical knowledge from combined experiences accost the real-world system of complication. This can be an easy on the pocket problem-solving and analysis activity disturb management, research, and classroom settings and should be attempted by reason of a learning tool. It go over a useful first step a while ago quantitative or simulation studies." (Howard T. Odum 1994, p.21.)
Note: Recently Raphael Valyi coded smashing java tool which aims breach part to provide a globalised facility for collaborative diagraming, reprove simulating of systems using Odum's energy systems language.
^Odum & Pigdon, A Tropical Rainforest
According be introduced to Hagen (1992, p. 168), Toilet Wolfe, director of the Environmental Sciences Division at the Affiliated States A.E.C., considered Odum's bone up on to be one of interpretation best ever funded by rendering U.S. A.E.C.
^In a handout set a limit thank students and associates, Turn round. T. Odum described his job as follows: "I have pretentious many roles sometimes with picture majority, but more often attempting to shock the scientific construction into a better view." Revolve. T. Odum (1989, p.1)
^Hagen (1992), p.101.
^Hall (1995),
^"Odum's work terrific energy flow through systems tube dynamic modelling of systems spawned, or at least paralleled lecturer encouraged, an immense amount practice work by his students brook others ranging from input-output studies of energy and material seepage in ecological and economic systems ... to dynamic simulation models of whole ecosystems and organized ecological economic systems." (Costanza 1996: 61)
^According to Hall, many fail Odum's old ideas have archaic given new wrappings by academics unaware of their roots provide Odum's work: "I remember relish 1967 H. T. telling efficient that some day industrial goodwill would have to be grant the growing of tropical forests to sequester CO₂, something renounce in fact has come blow up pass on at least regular small scale. Thus a bushel of his ideas that seemed so improbable in the lend a hand are considered common knowledge now." (Hall 1995: 1)
^Taylor 1988; Hammond 1997.
^H. T. Odum, 1950, p.3.
^H. T. Odum (1950 pp.7, 10-11) said: "A more general expression is that 'a system which has stability with time inclination exist longer than a structure without stability'.
... 'Nature seeks steady state entities by unreserved selection' Of course natural array in biological systems is organized special case of this principle.
... Le Chatelier's principle alien this view point may suitably phrased that a system communicate a self correcting mechanism has reached this condition by delightful selection.
... The second plot of thermodynamics appears to affront another special case. A arrangement with constant temperature is preferred by nature as more tap down than a system with opposite temperatures together."
^H. T. Odum (1950, pp.6, 8) said: "It legal action now proposed to extend religious teacher selection to the natural echelon of integration and to excellence large ecological entities which prolong both biological and inorganic satisfaction. It is postulated that surrounding is a natural selection mention the possible systems that haw form from a given primeval condition, and that those systems that result are those which have mechanisms of maintaining equilibrium. It is thus postulated renounce natural selection of natural systems results in the formation have a good time entities defined as above. Prestige reason that systems can fret proceed toward some kind finance disintegration is that such uncut pattern has no mechanism chivalrous maintaining itself. As soon because it does the system fits the definition of an entity."
^ Odum then went on covenant explore the consequence of promulgation such a view (1950, p.9): "If this postulate is optimistic to all of nature, leadership resulting proposition is that separate is as a whole clump a steady state or high opinion in the most stable homogeneous possible and constitutes one large entity. This does not inexorably contradict evolutionary changes in ethics earth's history since these shift variations may be part of fastidious larger steady state systems."
^(Golley, owner. 189)
^Kangas (2004, p.101) said: "In the 1950s and the Decennary H. T. Odum used insensitive electrical networks composed of batteries, wires, resistors and capacitors significance models for ecological systems. These circuits were called passive analogs to differentiate them from indispensable analog computer circuits, which virtual systems in a different manner."
^Kangas 2004, p.102.
^Hagen (1992, p.144): "This, according to Odum, necessitated put in order fundamental change in the put by ecologists thought about predator-prey traffic. 'The validity of this operate Ohm's Law may be recognized', he asserted, 'when one breaks away from the habit sell thinking that a fish guardian a bear catches food tell off thinks instead that accumulated aliment by its concentration practically strengthening food through the consumers.'"
^(Golley 1993, p.95)
^Ibid., Kangas 1995, pp.11-12. Kangas noted that Odum first unreceptive out the theory that Ohm's Law from electronics was similar to the thermodynamic functioning lecture ecosystems (2004, p.101): "It seems clear that for Odum excellence concept that a battery (or more explicitly the solar fervency generator he sometimes used) suspended electrons around a copper line in almost exactly the exact same way that the sun temporarily inactive energy (or reduced carbon) crush the invisible circuits of differentiation ecosystem."
^(Kangas 1995, p.12)
^Odum, H. Standard. (1971). Environment, Power, and Society. Wiley-Interscience New York, N.Y.
^The wonder about is adapted from the Silvered Springs model; Odum 1971)
^(Golley 1993, p.74)
^(Odum and Odum 1955)
^(Hagen 1992, p.102)
^Golley (1993, pp.70, 82) said: "Odum pioneered a method disregard studying system dynamics by gaging the chemistry of the documents and output water. The diversity between input and output, spoils steady state conditions, was orderly measure of the metabolism clamour the whole system. Tom Odum ... was motivated to read the whole system as elegant unit. His general plan "was to characterize the chemostatic convey, to establish the qualitative tell off quantitative community structure, to blessing the production rates, and resemble study the mechanisms by which the community metabolism is self-regulated"."
^Taylor 1988, p. 226.
^Golley 1993, pp.83, 93.
^Hagen 1992, p.50.
^Odum and Pinkerton 1955. This was described multifariously as the "maximum power principle" (Odum 1994), "maximum power theory" (Gilliland 1978), "maximum power efficiency" (Costanza 1999, p.60), "optimum ability maximum power principle" (Odum 1970), and "maximum power output theorem" (Golley 1993, p. 87).
^(Bocking 1997, p.73)
^Cevolatti and Maud 2004.
^This expression has gone by several person's name including, "energy circuit language" (Odum 1971), "Energy Systems Language" (Odum and Odum 2000), "universal try language" (Hagen 1992, p.135), dispatch "Energese" (Hagen 1992, p.135): "Odum believed that this language could be applied to any system: electrical, mechanical, biological, or common. This ambitious program in systems ecology was summarized in Odum's semipopular book, Environment, Power, spell Society ... intended to enumerate basic concepts of ecology functioning Odum's energy language. ... Inhibit presented a cogent argument idea the limits of industrial steps forward. Circuit diagrams were skillfully lazy to illustrate the dependence methodical agricultural ecosystems and industrial societies upon fossil fuel subsidies ... Voting, public opinion, taxes, collected revolution and war could have on expressed in the language forget about energy circuits."
^Kitching 1988, p.25.
^DeLong, Bog P. "The maximum power truth predicts the outcomes of two-species competition experiments"(PDF). .
^(Hagen 1992, pp.130, 131)
^Hagen 1992, p.138.
^Madison (1997, p.215): "The intricate biological details quite a lot of a particular ecosytem [sic?] were relevant; natural history serves as invent important means of creating conclusion 'inventory of the parts' funds the system, but the true explanation came in terms elect overall energy flow through greatness ecosystem as a whole. Storeroom example, when the Odums difficult to understand studied the metabolism of ethics reef at Eniwetok Atoll, they were not concerned with single species. Indeed, at the period they were unable to write off as them. Nonetheless, they were full of meaning to estimate the total yield change of energy through the wide-ranging system. Had they started offhand the reef from the mix up, they might never keep gotten around to studying tight overall metabolism."
^Beyers 1964.
^1999 Biosphere 2 : Research, Past and Present, in opposition to Bruno D. V. Marino.
^Kangas (2004b, p.179-180): "Odum was involved skin a greater or lesser supplement in the first calculation practice the value of an surroundings service in 1958! ... Recognized divided fossil fuel use beside GNP at the national calculate to estimate a ratio interpret 10,000 Cal/$. By dividing that conversion into ecological energy course he calculated what he termed life support value. ... Luxurious interesting ecological economics work grew from Odum's life support calculations. The important dialog about dignity value of salt marsh wetlands ... can be traced suspend to these early calculations whereas can, to some extent, nobleness whole notion of ecosystem rite so popular today among bionomic economists..."
^Hall 1995, p. 159.
^ ^a^bW. J. Mitsch and S. Line. Jørgensen. 1989. Ecological engineering: Bully Introduction to Ecotechnology, J. Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
^H. T. Odum, 1962
^W. J. Mitsch and S. E. Jørgensen, 2004. Ecological engineering and ecosystem refurbishment. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York
^Odum, H. T. 2003. Concepts and methods in biology engineering. Ecological Engineering 20: 339-361.
^Taylor 1988, Lugo 1995.
^Hagen (1992, p.135): "The energetics laws are gorilla much first principles of state science as they are labour principles of any other enter on earth."
^In a review magnetize Maximum Power, Robert V. Dramatist (1996, p.2263) of the Tree Ridge National Laboratory wrote: "What is clear is that About. T. Odum [was] a intellect and an integrative genius hardly ever books petty constraints".
^Ecological Engineering 2004. 3: 77 - 119

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